Reporting and documentation requirements under Reg. 84 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.84 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) transposes the reporting and documentation requirements established by Art 84 of Directive 2014/24. This is an area where Dir 2014/24 ended up loosing much of the bite initially included in the 2011 Commission's Proposal, which would have set a requirement for the creation of a national oversight body and triggered significant interest from practitioners [remarkably, see the UK's Procurement Lawyers' Association working group on Art 84 of the proposal].

Indeed, the oversight and monitoring obligations that Member States need to discharge were limited to the requirements of Art 83 Dir 2014/24 whereby, in order to effectively ensure correct and efficient implementation, they need to guarantee that the tasks set out in that article are performed by one or more authorities, bodies or structures. Those tasks include: i) recurrent monitoring obligations, ii) public disclosure of the results of such monitoring [art 83(2) dir 2014/24], and iii) period reporting to the European Commission by 18 April 2017 and every three years thereafter [art 83(3) dir 2014/24]. The Commission will then use such country reports to update its implementation reports (see here).

Moreover, Member States shall ensure that information and guidance on the interpretation and application of EU public procurement law is available free of charge to assist contracting authorities and economic operators, in particular SMEs, in correctly applying the Union public procurement rules; and that support is available to contracting authorities with regard to planning and carrying out procurement procedures [art 83(4) dir 2014/24]. Member States shall also designate a point of reference for cooperation with the Commission as regards the application of public procurement legislation [art 83(5) dir 2014/24]. In England, this is fundamentally done by the Crown Commercial Service (CCS).

In order to enable the Member State to discharge such obligations, Dir 2014/24 imposes documentary obligations that trickle down to contracting authorities and that the PCR2015 replicate. Additionally to the obligations on retention of contractual documents [reg.83 PCR2015], reg.84 creates  reporting obligations for contracting authorities.

Under reg.84(1) PCR2015, contracting authorities need to draw up a written individual report for every contract or framework agreement covered by Part 2 PCR2015, and every time a dynamic purchasing system is established [for a practical guide to the content of such report's, see Bevan Brittan's byte size procurement update 19 here]. Such a report is however not required in respect of contracts based on framework agreements where these are concluded in accordance with regulation 33(7) or (8)(a) PCR2015 [reg.84(2)].

The report needs to have specific contents depending on the type of contract awarded [reg.84(1)], but contracting authorities can avoid repetition and refer to the contract award notice to the extent that such notice contains the required information [reg.84(3)]. These reports need to be made available to the European Commission upon request [reg.84(4)], as well as to the to the Cabinet Office or to such other body as the Cabinet Office may direct in connection with any functions which that body exercises for the purposes of Article 83 of Dir 2014/24 [reg.84(5) and see above]. 

Moreover, reg.84(6) PCR2015 imposes additional reporting obligations to the Cabinet Office, for the purpose of enabling the Cabinet Office to provide the Commission with information. Hence, beyond the contents of the report as per reg.84(1) PCR2015, contracting authorities need to be able to provide "such other information as the Cabinet Office may from time to time request" [reg.84(6)], which potentially creates a heavier reporting burden than that strictly derived from the rules in Dir 2014/24.

In that regard, though, it is important to stress that reg.84(7) to (9) PCR2015 transpose the general documentary requirements foreseen in Art 84(2) Dir 2014/24, whereby contracting authorities shall document the progress of all procurement procedures, whether or not those are conducted by electronic means. To that end, they shall ensure that they keep sufficient documentation to justify decisions taken in all stages of the procurement procedure, such as documentation on communications with economic operators and internal deliberations, preparation of the procurement documents, dialogue or negotiation if any, selection and award of the contract. The documentation shall be kept for a period of at least three years from the date of award of the contract. Consequently, diligent contracting authorities should not have difficulties in providing detailed reports on any matters arising from a well-documented procurement procedure.

It may be worth stressing that contracting authorities will need to protect confidential information as per reg.21 PCR2015, which will probably solely require them to make sure that the Cabinet Office, any other other body as the Cabinet Office may direct in connection with any functions which that body exercises for the purposes of Article 83 of Dir 2014/24 [and the European Commission] have procedures in place to guarantee the confidentiality of the sensitive parts of the reports.

Retention of contract copies under Reg. 83 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.83 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) establishes rules on retention of contract copies aimed at complying with the documentary requirements of Article 83(6) of Directive 2014/24. According to these rules, contracting authorities shall, at least for the duration of the contract, keep copies of all concluded contracts with a value equal to or greater than 1,000,000 EUR in the case of public supply contracts or public service contracts; and 10,000,000 EUR in the case of public works contracts [reg.83(1)]. 
 
It is important to point out that the counter-value of those thresholds should be determined according to the Communication from the Commission on corresponding values of the thresholds of Directives 2004/17/EC, 2004/18/EC and 2009/81/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council [2013] OJ C 366/1, which sets them at £833,400 and £8,334,000 respectively.Given the great divergence in current value, it would probably be a good idea for the Commission to update its Communication sooner rather than later. 
 
In any case, the rule in reg.83(1) PCR2015 could have clarified that the relevant value for these purposes is to be determined, for example, at the moment of signature. However, given that the contract can be modified and that the value at signature rule is by mo means the only option, it may be a good idea for contracting authorities to retain copies of all concluded contracts in any case.

Reg.83(2) PCR2015 determines that contracting authorities shall grant access to those contracts, but access to specific documents or items of information may be denied to the extent and on the conditions provided for in the applicable EU or national rules on access to documents and data protection. This opens a can of worms regarding the obligations to disclose concluded contracts under freedom of information requests or any other transparency rules. 
 
My personal opinion has always been that disclosing concluded contracts in full is a bad idea due to the transparency it creates (see here for discussion). Hence, I would promote a careful assessment of the effects of disclosing this information and would strengthen the obligation of contracting authorities to comply by analogy with their duty to protect confidential and competition sensitive information under regs.21 and 86 PCR2015.

Decisions of the jury in design contests under Reg. 82 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.82 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) transposes Art 82 of Directive 2014/24 concerning decisions of the jury in design contests. These rules aim to ensure the independence that reg.81(1) PCR2015 facilitates through the avoidance of conflicts of interest, as well as to make sure that deliberations and exchanges of information are recorded in an accurate manner (but this may not have been needed, as reg.22(10) PCR2015 and 84(7) to (9) also impose similar documentary obligations for oral exchanges of information).

Under reg.82 PCR2015, it is clear that the jury shall be autonomous in its decisions and opinions [reg.82(1)], that it shall examine the plans and projects submitted by the candidates anonymously and solely on the basis of the criteria indicated in the contest notice [reg.82(2)] and that anonymity shall be observed until the jury has reached its opinion or decision [reg.82(4)].

Moreover, the jury shall record its ranking of projects in a report, signed by its members, made according to the merits of each project, together with its remarks and any points that may need clarification [reg.82(3)]. In that regard, candidates may be invited, if need be, to answer questions that the jury has recorded in the minutes to clarify any aspect of the projects [reg.82(5)]. And, in such case, complete minutes shall be drawn up of the dialogue between jury members and candidates [reg.82(6)].

Once more, the trouble with reg.82 PCR2015 is not so much about what it regulates, but for what it fails to address. It is not clear how the jury needs to conduct its deliberations, or how should it adopt its decisions (consensus, open voting, secret voting, role of the president, etc). These are not issues for the Directive to regulate, but the PCR2015 could have made the lives of contracting authorities easier by providing a default procedure that avoided them having to reinvent the wheel every time they decide to run a design contest. Luckily, maybe, that is not a very frequent occurrence.

Composition of the jury for design contests under Reg. 81 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.81 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) transposes Art 81 of Directive 2014/24 and imposes two straightforward and minimal rules controlling the composition of the jury for design contests. See Pedro's remarks here.

Firstly, it is clear that the jury shall be composed exclusively of natural persons who are independent of participants in the contest [reg.81(1) PCR2015]. Secondly, where a particular professional qualification is required from participants in a contest, at least a third of the members of the jury shall have that qualification or an equivalent qualification [reg.81(2) PCR2015].

Regarding the first requirement of independence of the members of the jury, it seems quite natural that the absence of conflicts of interest will need to meet the requirements of reg.24 PCR2015 and that, in the case of unavoidable/unavoided conflicts of interest, the conflicted participant should be excluded from the design contest as per reg.57(8)(e) PCR2015 (although, once more, the fact that such ground for exclusion is discretionary does not really help much).

Regarding the second requirement, from a technical perspective, it makes sense to require that a significant part of the jury holds qualifications needed to assess the project from a technical point of view. Of course, the requirement for participants and members of the jury to hold such qualification needs to be justified and proportionate. And the general rules of the Services Directive and, generally, on professional regulation and free movement need to be respected. 

Those issues are not specific to design contests and would require comments beyond the scope of our procurement tennis. Suffice it to raise here that unreasonable or disproportionate requirements regarding (unjustified) professional restrictions could fall afoul of Art 101 TFEU as either a concerted practice or a recommendation of an association of undertakings [for an introduction to this general discussion, see IE Wendt, EU Competition Law and Liberal Professions: an Uneasy Relationship?, Nijhoff Studies in European Union Law vol. 2 (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2013)]. Hence, contracting authorities will be well advised to seek competition clearance where there are risks of illegitimate or unjustified foreclosure of non-qualified participants.

Extended comments on non-profit organisations, procurement and State aid implications of Spezzino (C-113/13)

I have just uploaded on SSRN a short paper that extends my previous comments on the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) Judgment in Azienda sanitaria locale n. 5 «Spezzino» and Others, C-113/13, EU:C:2014:2440. It will be included in a special issue of the European Procurement & Public Private Partnership Law Review, with Prof Roberto Caranta as guest editor.

The paper assesses the competition law and State aid implications of the CJEU Judgment in Spezzino. It pays particular attention at the departure from the Altmark test for the assessment of public support granted to providers of public services; as well as on the change of mind by the CJEU regarding the special position of non-profit entities in the direct award of public service contracts.

The full citation for the paper is A Sanchez-Graells, "Competition and State Aid Implications of the Spezzino Judgment (C-113/13): The Scope for Inconsistency in Assessing Support for Public Services Voluntary Organisations" (June 30, 2015). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2625166. Comments welcome!

Rules on organisation of design contests and the selection of participants under Reg. 80 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.80 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) transposes Art 80 of Directive 2014/24 regarding rules on the organisation of design contests and the selection of participants. However, as Pedro has already pointed out, reg.80 PCR2015 does not contain rules, but rather some relatively broad principles to be followed in the adaptation of the general rules to the running of design contests. As he rightly stresses, reg.80 PCR2015 does not add much to the need to comply with the general principles of non-discrimination, transparency and competition when running design contests. Not much more to comment.

Notices for design contests under Reg. 79 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.79 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) transposes Art 79 of Directive 2014/24 regarding transparency obligations through notices connected to design contests. The rules fundamentally repeat the general obligations on the publication of notices, as well as the general possibility for contracting authorities to withhold information which disclosure would impede law enforcement, would be contrary to the public interest or would prejudice the legitimate commercial interests of a particular enterprise, whether public or private, or might prejudice fair competition between service providers. In my view, the provision does not deserve much comment.

Scope of rules on design contests under Reg. 78 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Changing tack and moving on from the regulation of contracts for public and other specific services that we discussed last week, reg.78 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) defines the scope of application of the rules governing design contests, and transposes Article 78 of Directive 2014/24 word by word.

It may be worth reminding that design contests are defined in reg.2(1) PCR2015 as those procedures which enable a contracting authority to acquire, mainly in the fields of town and country planning, architecture and engineering or data processing, a plan or design selected by a jury after being put out to competition with or without the award of prizes.

According to reg.78(1) PCR2015, the rules on design contests apply to two types of contests: (a) design contests organised as part of a procedure leading to the award of a public service contract [ie design contests leading to an award]; and (b) design contests with prizes or payments to participants [ie self-standing design contests or design contests leading to negotiations].

The regulation then goes on to establish the method for the calculation of the value of these contests for the purposes of determining the obligation to comply with EU rules for their tender. 

Regarding design contests leading to an award of a public service contract [reg.78(1)(a)], the value threshold mentioned in reg.5 PCR2015 shall be calculated on the basis of the estimated value net of VAT of the public service contract, including any possible prizes or payments to participants [reg.78(2)]. 

In turn, the case of self-standing design contests [reg.78(1)(b)], the threshold mentioned in reg.5 PCR2015 shall be calculated on the basis of the total amount of the prizes and payments [reg.78(2)].

However, where the design contest can be used for the award of a subsequent public services contract on the basis of negotiations entered into with the winner(s) of the design contest because the contracting authority has announced its intention to award such a contract in the contest notice in accordance with regs.32(7) and (8) PCR2015, its estimated value shall be calculated including the estimated value net of VAT of the public services contract which might subsequently be concluded following a negotiated procedure without prior publication.

The general criterion is, quite clearly, that the estimated value of the design contest must include the estimated value of any follow-up public services contracts derived from the contest. One may wonder why a design contest cannot be used to award public works contracts (Pedro does), but that is sorted out by the definition of public works contracts, which covers both design and execution phases. Consequently, where the potential follow up of a design contest is a public works contract, the contracting authority needs to either tender it as a public works contract or decouple the design contest from the award of the public works contract for its execution, and subject each to their own rules--which may trigger particular instances of application of reg.41 PCR2015 if the original "designer" bids for the construction of the public works, either directly or through undertakings related to them. 

The rest of the rules in reg.78 PCR2015 are pretty straightforward and, in my view, do not require much more comment.

Reserved contracts for certain services under Reg. 77 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.77 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) establishes rules concerning the possibility to reserve contracts for certain services to specific categories of providers, in line with Article 77 of Directive 2014/24. In short, this is fundamentally an anti-competitive legally-tolerated way of advantaging certain service providers in the award of public contracts and I cannot but repeat that I think it is a very bad idea in the long run. Pedro concurs.

As I already discussed (here), this is probably the novelty within the light touch regime applicable to the award of contracts for social and other specific services that better suits the regulatory needs implicit in the UK public sector reform strategy, since Art 77 Dir 2014/24 allows contracting authorities to reserve for the participation of given types of organisations (such as ‘public sector mutuals’, for instance) the award of contracts for certain services in the areas of health, social and cultural services, which basically comprise all, or the most relevant, medical services, personal services, educational and training services (including eLearning), sports and cultural services.

In terms of reg.77(1) PCR2015, contracting authorities may reserve to "qualifying organisations" (below) the right to participate in procedures for the award of reservable public contracts, which are those comprised in the categories listed in reg.77(2) PCR2015, which include 75121000-0 (Administrative educational services), 75122000-7 (Administrative healthcare services), 75123000-4 (Administrative housing services), 79622000-0 (Supply services of domestic help personnel), 79624000-4 (Supply services of nursing personnel), 79625000-1 (Supply services of medical personnel), 80110000-8 (Pre-school education services), 80300000-7 (Higher education services), 80420000-4 (E-learning services), 80430000-7 (Adult-education services at university level), 80511000-9 (Staff training services), 80520000-5 (Training facilities), 80590000-6 (Tutorial services), from 85000000-9 to 85323000-9 (fundamentally, all types of medical services), 92500000-6 (Library, archives, museums and other cultural services), 92600000-7 (Sporting services), 98133000-4 (Services furnished by social membership organisations), and 98133110-8 (Services provided by youth associations).

However, reg.77(6) PCR2015 determines that this does not apply in relation to the procurement of health care services for the purposes of the NHS within the meaning and scope of the National Health Service (Procurement, Patient Choice and Competition) (No. 2) Regulations 2013. This exclusion and its meaning is very unclear to me, particularly in view of the coverage given in reg.77(2) PCR2015, which includes a significant volume of services that can be procured for the NHS (should those not have been excluded, then?). Furthermore, in view of the special rules applicable to NHS procurement, it seems odd that no attempt to reconcile all these bodies of exceptional, sector-based procurement regimes is attempted [for discussion of the rules applicable to NHS procurement, see A Sanchez-Graells, “
New Rules for Health Care Procurement in the UK. A Critical Assessment from the Perspective of EU Economic Law” (2015) 24(1) Public Procurement Law Review 16-30].

The guidance offered by CCS in this regard does not sort out the issue, but seems to defer resolving the need for harmonisation of these competing regimes until after ongoing consultations: "At present, it is not possible to use the reserved contracts provision for healthcare commissioning by NHS England or Clinical Commissioning Groups in England. This is to ensure consistency with the general requirements in regulation 3 of the existing NHS (Procurement, Patient Choice and Competition Regulations) (No. 2) 2013 Regulations, in particular the prohibition on favouring types of provider. This position is subject to further consultation with the sector. Part of the role of the Mutuals in Health: Pathfinder Programme is to consider any potential legislative hurdles to the further development of health mutual in clinical services" (
Guidance on the light touch regime, 14). We shall wait for further developments.

In the cases where reserving contracts under reg.77 PCR2015 is possible, the contracting authority will need to make sure that the (type of) organisation chosen to be awarded the contract--ie the "qualifying organisation" meets all of the following requirements [reg.77(3)]: (a) its objective is the pursuit of a public service mission linked to the delivery of the services to be contracted; (b) its profits are reinvested with a view to achieving the organisation’s objective (and where profits are distributed or redistributed, this should be based on participatory considerations); (c) the structures of management or ownership of the organisation performing the contract shall be based on employee ownership or participatory principles, or shall require the active participation of employees, users or stakeholders; and (d) the organisation shall not have been awarded a contract for the services concerned by the contracting authority concerned pursuant to this special rules within the past three years.

The main (only) deviation between reg.77 PCR2015 and Art 77 Dir 2014/24 concerns the requirement for  structures of management or ownership of the organisation performing the contract to be based on employee ownership or participatory principles, or require the active participation of employees, users or stakeholders. Whereas Art 77(2)(c) Dir 2014/24 requires this without any qualifiers, reg.77(3)(c) PCR2015 includes the following possibility: "the structures of management or ownership of the organisation are (or will be, if and when it performs the contract) based on ...". 
This seems to aim to allow for entities in the process of becoming "qualifying organisations" to already tender for these reserved contracts, maybe also enabling for brake provisions (of the mutualisation process) linked to an eventual lack of success in being awarded the contract--ie, the government seems to be aiming to be in a position to ensure that mutuals are only created and go ahead if contracts are awarded to them, which would certainly make the mutualisation option much more attractive by reducing the risk undertaken by public officials seeking to spin-off from the public sector.

However, in my view, this is not necessarily in line with EU law, particularly because it refers to a future-looking contract compliance clause that triggers access to the competition for the reserved contract--which, in my opinion, is not compatible with the exceptional nature of this set of special provisions [for discussion of this type of requirements, A Sanchez-Graells, Public Procurement and the EU Competition Rules, 2nd edn (Oxford, Hart, 2015) 390].

On top of complying with the above requirements (of the Directive), the maximum duration of the contract shall not be longer than three years [reg.77(4)] and the call for competition shall make reference to  Art 77 Dir 2014/24, so that there is sufficient transparency on the use of this set of special rules [reg.77(5) PCR2015].


General comments
Under these special rules within the light-touch regime, contracting authorities seem almost completely free to decide to award the contracts to public service mutuals (and, most likely, to a specific public sector mutual, given their initial lack of capacity to tender for contracts to be awarded by contracting authorities other than the one they have just “spun-off”).
This creates a significant risk of ‘sweet deals’ aimed at supporting, fostering and consolidating public sector mutuals, which may well end up resulting in (3-year long, local) monopolies for the provision of those services in the hands of the newly spun-off public sector mutuals, which may extend their dominance beyond that point in time as incumbency advantages pile up. That would result in distortions of competition similar to those just identified by the UK’s Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) in the market enquiry on private health care services (final report here) and, as such, it is an undesirable prospect.

Generally speaking, it is worth stressing that public procurement rules and the general principles of public procurement can be applicable beyond the regulated cases, as the CJEU has been expanding the coverage of the procurement regime and systematically imposed certain obligations to the tendering of contracts not, or not-fully, covered by the Directives. Hence, the possibility for the CJEU to significantly restrict the discretion to resort to reg.77 PCR2015 / Art 77 Dir 2014/21 cannot be totally excluded. 
However, in recent cases such as Libert and Others (C-197/11 & C-203/11, EU:C:2013:288; see here) and Azienda sanitaria locale n. 5 «Spezzino» and Others (C-113/13, EU:C:2014:2440; see here), the CJEU appears to show very significant (and I would claim ‘excessive’) deference towards social and special services. Consequently, it may be unlikely to extend obligations to the award of contracts under reg.77 PCR2015. And, ultimately, I would think that this will be a provision mostly litigated at domestic level on grounds of judicial review due to deviations of power or excess of competences.

Principles of awarding contracts for social and other specific services under Reg. 76 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.76 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) sets out the principles of awarding contracts for social and other specific services and transposes Article 76 of Directive 2014/24. It does so in a way that deviates from the general copy-out approach and, in my view, incurs in potential instances of defective transposition that are very likely to result in infringements of the rules of the Directive. Pedro shares similar concerns (here).

Where the transposition keeps the defects of the the Directive
The only part where reg.76 PCR2015 follows Art 76(2) Dir 2014/24 is reg.76(8) PCR2015 where it is set out that, in the award of contracts for social and other specific services covered by reg.74 PCR2015, contracting authorities may take into account any relevant considerations, including the need to ensure quality, continuity, accessibility, affordability, availability and comprehensiveness of the services, the specific needs of different categories of users, including disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, the involvement and empowerment of users and innovation. However, reg.76 PCR2015 has not transposed the possibility given by Art 76(2) in fine Dir 201/24 whereby Member States may also provide that the choice of the service provider shall be made on the basis of the tender presenting the best price-quality ratio, taking into account quality and sustainability criteria for social services.

These provisions are not free from interpretive difficulties, particularly when it comes to their coordination with general principles for the award of contracts. Briefly, my general views are as follows [extracted, but updated, from A Sanchez-Graells and E Szyszczak, “Modernising Social Services in the Single Market: Putting the Market into the Social”, in JM Beneyto and J Maillo (eds), Fostering Growth: Reinforcing the Internal Market (Madrid, CEU Ediciones, 2014) 61-88].

Article 76 sets out the principles for the award of these contracts, although their regulation is left to the Member States (see below) provided that they take measures ‘to ensure contracting authorities comply with the principles of transparency and equal treatment of economic operators. Member States are free to determine the procedural rules applicable as long as such rules allow contracting authorities to take into account the specificities of the services in question’. The general requirement for contracting authorities to make sure that those procedures shall be at least sufficient to ensure compliance with the principles of transparency and equal treatment of economic operators is encapsulated in reg.76(2) PCR2015, whereas reg.76(1) in fine stresses that contracting authorities may take into account the specificities of the services in question.

A key element to take into consideration will be the need to further comply with the (more) general principles of procurement set out in Article 18, which requires that procurement also complies with the principles of competition and proportionality, and that economic operators participating in public procurement comply with applicable obligations in the fields of environmental, social and labour law. Given that Article 18 is nested in Title I and that the procurement of social and other specific services is regulated in Title III, Article 76(1) may be seen as a lex specialis that would de-activate the requirements for proportionality and undistorted competition in their procurement. However, such interpretation may not be welcome by the CJEU and it is my personal view that this is not the best approach.

With a permissive tone, Article 76(2) continues to regulate that: ‘contracting authorities may take into account the need to ensure quality, continuity, accessibility, affordability, availability and comprehensiveness of the services, the specific needs of different categories of users, including disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, the involvement and empowerment of users and innovation. Member States may also provide that the choice of the service provider shall be made on the basis of the most economically advantageous tender, taking into account quality and sustainability criteria for social services’. The drafting of the last sentences leaves an open question as to the obligation to choose the awardee of the contract on the basis of the most economically advantageous tender (MEAT), although (functionally) it seems to be out of the question, and the provision should simply be seen as allowing for the introduction of ‘specific’ criteria in the determination of the MEAT, such as quality and sustainability.

By not going beyond the wording of the Directive and, in particular, not offering guidance on how to interpret the elements of reg.76(8) PCR2015 when it comes to determining the MEAT, the PCR2015 do not provide any workable clarification and do not resolve difficult issues that were already present in sectoral procurement regimes, such as that applicable to healthcare [see A Sanchez-Graells, “New Rules for Health Care Procurement in the UK. A Critical Assessment from the Perspective of EU Economic Law” (2015) 24(1) Public Procurement Law Review 16-30]. 

Where the transposition seems defective and in breach of EU law

One of the initial difficulties in assessing the appropriateness of the transposition of Art 76 Dir 2014/24 by means of reg.76 PCR2015 derives from the opening clause of the EU provision, whereby "Member States shall put in place national rules for the award of contracts" for social and other specific services (emphasis added). In a literal reading, this may be seen as requiring the creation of a general (national) procedural framework for the award of these contracts or, in other words, a set of common, generally applicable rules. If that was the proper interpretation, then reg.76(1) PCR2015 may have failed to properly create those "national rules for the award of contracts" by determining that "[c]ontracting authorities shall determine the procedures that are to be applied in connection with the award of contracts" or social and other specific services.

By granting contracting authorities (almost) unfettered discretion to determine the applicable procedures--whether they correspond (with or without variations) to procedures, techniques or other features provided for in Part 2 PCR2015, or not--the PCR2015 may have failed to set any sort of specific "national rules for the award of contracts". However, such a literal reading of the requirement in Art 76(1) ab initio Dir 2014/24 may be opposed on the basis of the principles of procedural autonomy and subsidiarity, so this may not carry as much weight as one may initially have thought. In any case, it is also possible to read national as domestic, in which case this discussion would be moot.

Be it as it may, however, looking at the details of the very light touch approach adopted by reg.76 PCR2015, the defects seems even more apparent. Reg.76(3) PCR2015 sets out bare minimum requirements for procedures initiated by one of the notices mentioned in reg.75 PCR2015, whereby the contracting authority shall conduct the procurement, and award any resulting contract, in conformity with the information contained in the notice about conditions for participation, time limits for contacting the contracting authority, and the award procedure to be applied. Reg.76(6) PCR2015 adds that all time limits imposed on economic operators, whether for responding to a contract notice or taking any other steps in the relevant procedure, shall be reasonable and proportionate. Taken together, this barely creates any specific rule other than implicitly following the case law preventing substantial modifications of tender procedures without cancellation and readvertisement.

The big problem comes, in my view, with reg.76(4) PCR2015 whereby contracting authority may, however, deviate from the content of the previous notice and conduct the procurement, and award any resulting contract, in a way which is not in conformity with that information. It is true that reg.76(4) PCR2015 imposes a relatively stringent set of conditions, so that disregard for the (procedural) information disclosed in the previous notice can take place only if all the following conditions are met: (a) the failure to conform does not, in the particular circumstances, amount to a breach of the principles of transparency and equal treatment of economic operators; and (b) the contracting authority has, before proceeding to deviate from the published information, (i) given due consideration to the matter, (ii) concluded that there is no breach of the principles of transparency and equal treatment, (iii) documented that conclusion and the reasons for it in accordance with regs.84(7) and (8) PCR2015, and (iv) informed the participants of the respects in which the contracting authority intends to proceed in a way which is not in conformity with the information contained in the notice. For these purposes, "participants" means any economic operators which have responded to the notice and have not been informed by the contracting authority that they are no longer under consideration for the award of a contract within the scope of the procurement concerned [reg.76(5) PCR2015].

In my view, there are two main difficulties. First, it adopts a very narrow interpretation of the principle of equal treatment that falls into a participation trap that will result in de facto discrimination and an unavoidable infringement of the principle of transparency. And, second, this is very likely to trigger infringements on the rules applicable to cancellation and retendering of public tenders.

As to the participation trap or ‘trap of tender-specific reasoning’, by designing a system that allows contracting authorities to (1) disclose information that preselects a subset of potential suppliers and (2) later on, alter the rules of the procedure in a way that potential suppliers not included in that subset cannot challenge (because they are not informed and, seemingly, there is no further transparency/publication requirement), reg.76(4) PCR2015 fails to ensure actual compliance with the principle of non-discrimination [by analogy, see the reasoning of the EGC regarding the need for clarity of tender specifications in Commission v Cyprus, C-251/09, EU:C:2011:84 35-51 (not available in English)].

As to the infringement of the requirements for cancellation and retendering of procedures that would otherwise be substantially amended, it seems clear to me that the case law applicable to changes of disclosed contractual conditions applies (if nothing else, by analogy). In that regard, the CJEU has been clear that "where the amended condition, had it been part of the initial award procedure, would have allowed tenders submitted in the procedure with a prior call for competition to be considered suitable or would have allowed tenderers other than those who participated in the initial procedure to submit a tender" (emphasis added) are to be deemed substantial modifications of the tender conditions and, consequently, not acceptable [Case C-250/07 Commission v Greece [2009] ECR I-4369 52. See also, by analogy, Case C-454/06 Pressetext Nachrichtenagentur [2008] ECR I-4401 35]. Thus, unless contracting authorities could clearly prove that no other tenderers would have participated had the modified (procedural) conditions been disclosed from the beginning, reliance on reg.76(4) PCR2015 is bound to trigger an infringement of EU law.

For all of the above, I consider reg.76 PCR2015 a very clear instance of defective (if not outright improper) transposition of the requirements in Art 76 Dir 2014/24 and, consequently, I think that it should be modified as soon as possible and substituted by a sensible, fully-developed set of procedural rules applicable to the award of contracts for social and other specific services.

Interesting paper on use of theory in public procurement research (Flynn & Davis, 2014)

I have just read A Flynn and P Davis, "Theory in public procurement research" (2014) 14 (21) Journal of Public Procurement 139-180, which had been on the "to read" pile for a bit too long. Their paper focuses on procurement/supply-chain management scholarship, which will make it seem "peripheral" for legal academics. However, I think that their findings on the need to beef up the use of theory in public procurement research will translate well to legal scholarship, particularly that of an interdisciplinary nature. Well worth reading.


Publication of notices under Reg. 75 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.75 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) establishes requirements for the publication of notices linked to the award of public contracts for social and other special services, in line with Article 75 of Directive 2014/24. As part of the light touch regime applicable to the procurement of these services, the transparency obligations that contracting authorities need to comply with are reduced and made more flexible under reg.75 PCR2015, both at pre-award and post-award phase. See Pedro's remarks here.

When it comes to pre-award transparency, reg.75(1) PCR2015 gives contracting authorities a choice to advertise their intention to award a contract by means of either (a) a simplified contract notice, which shall contain the information referred to in part H of Annex V to Dir 2014/24; or (b) an enhanced prior information notice, which shall be published continuously (ie be made available throughout the period covered by the notice?), contain the information set out in part I of Annex V to Dir 2014/24, refer specifically to the types of services that will be the subject-matter of the contracts to be awarded, and indicate that the contracts will be awarded without further publication and invite interested economic operators to express their interest in writing. 

Of course, as recognised by reg.75(2) PCR2015, contracting authorities can dispense with these requirements where a negotiated procedure without prior publication could have been used in accordance with reg.32 PCR2015. In my view, the two cases that are more likely to trigger controversy are the use of reg.32(2)(b) PCR2015 whereby contracting authorities may be tempted to argue that particular social or special services can be provided "only by a particular economic operator" particularly under reg.32(2)(b)(iii) PCR2015 on the basis of "the protection of exclusive rights", such as an act of entrustment, licence or authorisation to provide certain services; as well as reg.32(9) PCR2015 for the award of new services which repeat similar ones, which would try to cover a clear renewal of an expiring contract as an extension of the previous contract.
The first argument could be devised in situations where (local) contracting authorities intend to keep the provision on social or other special services local/in hands of the incumbent. In that regard, the authorities could be tempted to argue that the existence of a de facto local monopoly requires them to award the contract directly and without publicity because there is no alternative provider in the market. This would simply be a misunderstanding of the applicable rules and cannot be accepted. It is worth stressing that the CJEU has permanently stressed the strict requirements that control decisions to proceed to the direct award of contracts under this ‘non-procedure’, which are subject to a strict assessment of whether the contracting authority "acted diligently and whether it could legitimately hold that the conditions [for recourse to this procedure] were in fact satisfied" [Fastweb, C-19/13, EU:C:2014:2194 50]. Consequently, there is no doubt that this procedure must be understood as exceptional [C-292/07 Commission v Belgium [2009] I-59 106].

In a refined form, the (local) contracting authority may try to justify the direct award on the basis of any sort of "exclusive right" they can see as being held by the local provider. In that regard, the case law of the CJEU as to what constitutes an exclusive or special right will gain significant prominence [for discussion in relation to utilities rules under Directive 2014/25, see T Kotsonis, "The 2014 Utilities Directive of the EU: codification, flexibilisation and other misdemeanours" (2014) 23 (4) Public Procurement Law Review 169-187], and will likely result in the conclusion that the local provider does not hold an exclusive right that merits protection for the purposes of excluding competition in the award of the contract. 

It is also worth stressing that the granting of such exclusive or special rights should have complied with fundamentally the same requirements in their award, which may make reliance on the apparent exclusivity equally illegal under EU law [see GS Ølykke, "Is the granting of special and exclusive rights subject to the principles applicable to the award of concessions? Recent developments in case law and their implications for one of the last sanctuaries for protectionism" (2014) 23 (1) Public Procurement Law Review 1-20]. Moreover, contracting authorities need to keep in mind the very high threshold imposed by the last caveat of reg.32(2)(b), which stresses that recourse to direct award under the argument of protection of exclusive rights can only take place "where no reasonable alternative or substitute exists and the absence of competition is not the result of an artificial narrowing down of the parameters of the procurement".
The second argument, based on the direct award of a contract for new services which repeat similar ones under reg.32(9) PCR2015 could be particularly tempting on a "second round" of award initially based on the reservation allowed for under reg.77 PCR2015 (commented in due course). The scenario would be as follows: a (local) contracting authority awards a "reserved contract" to a preferred non-profit qualifying organisation under reg.77 PCR2015. The contract is for 3 years [reg.77(4)] and foresees the possibility to resort to the additional services clause under reg.32(9) PCR2015--which in itself, and strictly speaking, may not be a breach of reg.77(4) PCR2015, but this promises to be highly contentious due to the exceptional nature of the reservation rules (and, in my personal view, should not be allowed to begin with). 

When the first 3-year period is over, the contracting authority effectively resorts to the possibility to directly award a contract for the same/similar services for another 3 years [or three times, consecutively, for 1 year, or any other combination of contract durations up to the 3 year limit established in reg.32(12) PCR2015]. In my view, this would be a circumvention of the exceptional circumstances that are covered by reg.77 PCR2015 and would amount to an infringement of reg.18(2) PCR2015 / Art 18(1) Dir 2014/24.
Consequently, overall, I would stress that the reference to reg.32 PCR2015 and the possibility to enter into directly-awarded contracts for social and special services should fundamentally be disregarded by contracting authorities if they want to avoid risks of legal challenge, unless very clear grounds exist and they can make sure that the lack of competition in the market / existence of exclusive rights is not a situation they created themselves (in contravention of EU law).
Post-award transparency is also flexibilised. Generally speaking, the award of a contract for services covered by reg.74 PCR triggers the obligation to make known the results of the procurement procedure by means of a contract award notice, which shall contain the information referred to in part J of Annex V to Dir 2014/24 [reg.75(3)] and be sent for publication in compliance with reg.51 PCR2015 [reg.75(5) PCR2015]. Contracting authorities may, however, group such notices on a quarterly basis, in which case they shall send the grouped notices within 30 days of the end of each quarter [reg.75(4) PCR2015]. My hunch is that quarterly publication will become the norm, which is not a bad thing.

Award of contracts for social and other specific services under Reg. 74 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.74 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) transposes Art 74 of Directive 2014/24 and simply opens the section on the procurement of social and special services by indicating that public contracts for social and other specific services listed in Schedule 3 (which replicates Annex XIV of Dir 2014/24) shall be awarded in accordance with the rules in regs.75 to 77 PCFR2015.

Other than creating this "light touch regime" for social and special services, reg.74 PCR2015 does not have much substantive content of its own. For discussion of the light touch regime, which we will be commenting during the rest of the week, see the Crown Commercial Services Guidance here and S Smith, "Articles 74 to 76 of the 2014 Public Procurement Directive: the new "light regime" for social, health and other services and a new category of reserved contracts for certain social, health and cultural services contracts" (2014) 23(4) Public Procurement Law Review 159-168.

For some background discussion on the role of the light touch regime in enabling Member States to reform their public sector and, in the specific case of the UK (England), to deepen the mutualisation strategy supported by the current Tory government and the previous Coalition government, see A Sanchez-Graells & E Szyszczak, 'Modernising Social Services in the Single Market: Putting the Market into the Social' (2013), as well as shorter comments here and here.

It may be worth pointing out that reg.74 PCR2015 deviates from Art 74 Dir 2014/24 in that it does not reiterate the value threshold above which those contracts are covered--which, however, is to be found in reg.5(1)(d) PCR2015 as a mere referral to the value determined in the Directive (see here and here). Ultimately, it is worth remembering that such value is of €750,000, which is converted into £625,050 for OJEC advertisement purposes (cfr with about £540,000 at today's exchange rate).

After having heard Pedro's presentation at Global Revolution last week (available here), where he criticised with good arguments the arbitrariness of EU thresholds in general, I am quite sure that he will have some specific issues concerning the threshold for social and special services, not least due to the unavolidable exchange risk fluctuation that imposed a strong de facto variation in coverage. Pedro?

Termination of contracts under Reg. 73 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg.73 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) transposes the new rules on termination of contracts set out in Article 73 of Directive 2014/24. In my view, the provision transposes the rules in the Directive correctly. Pedro harbours some doubts here. However, it does so in a way that, from a contract law perspective may require some comments. I split my reflections below in two parts. The first one addresses the issues raised by Dir 2014/24 itself, which apply equally to reg.73(1) PCR2015. The second one focuses on the contract law aspects under regs.73(2) and (3) PCR2015.

New EU rules on termination of contract
The restrictions on the admissible renegotiation of the basic or substantial elements of a contract sometimes leave the contracting authorities with limited alternatives for the cancellation of the tendering procedure or the termination of the contract, and its subsequent re-tendering [on the different, although related, issue of the obligation of contracting authorities to terminate contracts concluded in breach of public procurement rules—ie, of termination as a remedy, see Case C-503/04 Commission v Germany [2007] ECR I-6153 25–42; see also, with numerous references, S Treumer, ‘Towards an Obligation to Terminate Contracts Concluded in Breach of the EC Public Procurement Rules: The End of the Status of Concluded Public Contracts as Sacred Cows’ (2007) 16 Public Procurement Law Review 371, 377–78; and P Delvolvé, ‘Note à Trstenjak, Verica, Conclusions sur CJCE, 18 juillet 2007, Commission v Allemagne, affaire C-503/04’ (2007) 5 Révue française de Droit administratif 972, 975 and ff].

Given that the principles of non-discrimination, competition, objectivity and diligent administration (other than additional principles such as the duty of contracting authorities not to depart from their previous acts) restrict the circumstances under which the cancellation of a tender can take place—while the principle of legal certainty and of the protection of legitimate expectations, and the principle pacta sunt servanda, should be adapted so as not to impair the objectives of the public procurement directives and the rules of the TFEU [Case C-503/04 Commission v Germany [2007] ECR I-6153 33–36. For a critical view, see Treumer, Towards an Obligation to Terminate Contracts Concluded in Breach of the EC Public Procurement Rules (2007) 377 and 381–82]—it is submitted that the decision of the contracting authority as regards the termination of the contract and its subsequent re-tendering cannot be adopted freely [maybe the only exception to this rule is that of contracts entered into for an indefinite period of time, which should be looked at with disfavour, following the dictum of the Case C-454/06 Pressetext Nachrichtenagentur [2008] ECR I-4401 73]. 

Therefore, termination decisions should comply with the same general principles restricting the discretion of contracting authorities to cancel a tender procedure. This has now been supported in broad terms in recital (113) of Directive 2014/24, which recognises that contracting authorities are sometimes faced with circumstances that require the early termination of public contracts in order to comply with obligations under Union law in the field of public procurement, and requires Member States to ensure that contracting authorities have the possibility, under the conditions determined by national law, to terminate a public contract during its term if so required by Union law. This general approach to the termination of contracts has been further specified in the rules of article 73 of Directive 2014/24. 

Under this new provision, contracting authorities must have the possibility to terminate a public contract during its term, at least in three cases. Firstly, and in support of the restrictions on the modification of contracts, where the contract has been subject to a substantial modification not exempted under article 72 and, consequently, would have required a new procurement procedure [see JM Hebly and P Heijnsbroek, ‘When amending leads to ending: a theoretical and practical insight into the retendering of contracts after a material change’, in G Piga and S Treumer (eds), The Applied Law and Economics of Public Procurement: the economics of legal relationships (London: Routledge, 2013) 163–84]. Secondly, where the contractor should have been excluded from the procurement procedure because, at the time of contract award, was affected by one of the situations imposing its mandatory exclusion under article 57(1) of Directive 2014/24. And, finally, where the contract should not have been awarded to the contractor in view of a serious infringement of the obligations under the Treaties and Directive 2014/24 that has been declared by the CJEU in a procedure pursuant to article 258 TFEU. 

These are all very grave breaches of the rules of Directive 2014/24 (and the TFEU), but there seems to be no difficulty to expand the grounds for termination of the contract to other situations with identity of function, such as where the contractor is affected by domestic mandatory exclusion grounds, or by discretionary exclusion grounds where there is no good reason not to take them into account, or where the infringement of the TFEU or Directive 2014/24 is found by other jurisdictional bodies (either as a result of a case where a preliminary reference under art 267 TFEU is posed to the CJEU, or otherwise). Overall, however and as already stressed, a general restriction on the use of termination rights should be found in the requirement that contracting authorities discharge the same duties of good administration implicit in decision to cancel tenders.

The UK (Eng & W) adaptation through (implied) contract terms
I am not an expert in UK contract law by any stretch of the imagination but it strikes me as slightly odd that the regulatory option adopted in reg.73 PCR2015 combines a mix of contract requirements and implied contractual terms, rather than an alternative statutory power to terminate that would be more easily aligned with continental approaches.

On the one hand, reg.73(1) PCR2015 imposes a duty for contracting authorities to "ensure that every public contract which they award contains provisions enabling [them] to terminate the contract", whereas reg.73(2) further indicates that "[t]hose provisions may address the basis on which the power is to be exercisable in those circumstances, for example by providing for notice of termination to be given and by addressing consequential matters that will or might arise from the termination". On the other hand, and as a catch-all clause, reg.73(3) PCR2015 establishes that "[t]o the extent that a public contract does not contain provisions enabling the contracting authority to terminate the contract on any of the grounds mentioned in paragraph (1), a power for the contracting authority to do so on giving reasonable notice to the contractor shall be an implied term of that contract". In my view, this apparently establishes an unnecessary duplication.

Given that reg.73(3) PCR2015 sorts out the problem and reg.73(1) + (2) still fall short from imposing specific means of ensuring termination powers and ways of determining its consequences, it seems unnecessary to have included the latter provisions in the PCR2015. In my view, it would have sufficed to establish the provision on implied terms and simply have allowed contracting authorities to agree explicit terms provided they did not limit the contracting authority's power to terminate.

Additionally, the provisions of reg.73 PCR2015 are at the same time insufficient, since they do not indicate what are the consequences of the termination (on the basis of the implied term) and this lack of regulation triggers significant questions that revive old discussions on the scope of ineffectiveness under the remedies Directive. For instance, can/should/must the rules in reg.101 PCR215 on the consequences of ineffectiveness be applied in these cases (ie is the contract to be considered to be prospectively, but not retrospectively, ineffective) or can retrospective effects be determined? Can the contractor be compensated? Can the contracting authority avoid termination on the basis of public interest as per reg.57(6) PCR2015, particularly if reg.73(1)(b) is applicable? In my view, this is another instance of insufficient regulation (not improper transposition), where the UK legislator would have been well-advised to take some more time to think before enacting the PCR2015 as is [for further discussion, listen to the podcast here].

What level of transparency for award/call-off decisions within framework agreements?

During several recent conversations with participants at the Global Revolution conference, and particularly with my colleague Dr Marta Andrecka and some members of the European Institutions, I have been asked repeatedly about my views on the level of transparency that should apply to award/call-off decisions within framework agreements. 

There is no doubt that full transparency is mandated regarding the conclusion of the framework agreement itself and, subject to my general concerns about excessive transparency (here), I agree that this is the existing legal situation. However, there is significant uncertainty and an ongoing practical debate regarding the level of 'intra-framework' transparency that the EU rules require (as well as the applicability of rules on award criteria to those decisions, but that is a topic for another day).

There is no rule that expressly covers this issue from the perspective of the individual rights of information of contractors/tenderers either under Article 55 of Directive 2014/24 or reg.55 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015), which only make reference to transparency/debriefing obligations related to the conclusion (or not) of the framework agreement itself, but not the subsequent awards/call-offs within the framework. This creates uncertainty as to the applicability of these (or analogous) rights to be informed in relation to intra-framework awards/call-offs [for in-depth discussion, see S Arrowsmith, The Law of Public and Utilities Procurement. Regulation in the EU and UK, 3rd edn., vol. 1 (London, Sweet & Maxwell, 2014) 1153 and ff, esp 1156-57, and 1347].

More generally, when it comes to transparency of the awards/call-offs within framework agreements, the general transparency rules are clearly limited in Art 50 Dir 2014/24, according to which "[i]n the case of framework agreements... contracting authorities shall not be bound to send a notice of the results of the procurement procedure for each contract based on that agreement. Member States may provide that contracting authorities shall group notices of the results of the procurement procedure for contracts based on the framework agreement on a quarterly basis. In that case, contracting authorities shall send the grouped notices within 30 days of the end of each quarter." 

As I criticised in relation to reg.50 PCR2015 [see here], the drafting of this clause may make it susceptible of being interpreted as fully discretionary for Member States, which could opt  (like the UK) for not imposing any sort of transparency obligation (quarterly, or otherwise) connected to the results of the procurement procedure for contracts based on the framework agreement. I argued that such an approach could be an infringement of EU law and, more specifically, the requirements of the principle of transparency in Art 18(1) Dir 2014/24.

To my surprise (I should have known, though), the uncertainty seems to be much more limited when it comes to the draft new procurement rules for the European Institutions under the foreseen 2016 Financial Regulation (proposal available here), which Art 113 [equivalent to Art 55 Dir 2014/24] expressly excludes almost all 'intra-framework' transparency when it comes to award/call-off decisions. According to that provision,
2. The contracting authority shall notify all candidates or tenderers whose requests to participate or tenders are rejected of the grounds on which the decision was taken, as well as the duration of the standstill period referred to in Article 118(2). For the award of specific contracts under a framework contract with reopening of competition, the contracting authority shall inform the tenderers of the result of the evaluation.

3. The contracting authority shall inform each tenderer who is not in a situation of exclusion, whose tender is compliant with the procurement documents and who makes a request in writing of any of the following: (a) the characteristics and relative advantages of the successful tender and the name of the tenderer to whom the contract is awarded, except in the case of a specific contract under a framework contract with reopening of competition;
(emphasis added).
This comes to determine that there is no transparency obligation whatsoever for award/call-off decisions that do not follow a 'mini-competition' and, in even in the case of such reopening of competition, the transparency obligation is limited to the evaluation (likely of their own tender), but does not seem to cover other aspects of the award/call-off decision. 

The European Court of Auditors criticised this situation in its January 2015 Opinion on the draft revised Financial Regulation (available here) in the following terms: "The proposed wording of Article 113(2)(2) and (3)(a) would not require the contracting authority, in the case of specific contracts awarded under a framework contract with reopening of competition, to notify the contractors whose tenders have been rejected of the reasons for their rejection, the relative advantages of the successful tender and the name of the tenderer to whom the contract is awarded. This exception to the rules governing transparency and the obligation to state reasons cannot be justified" (para 37, emphasis added).

In my view, this is an indication that my previous assessment regarding the lack of compatibility with EU law of the total lack of transparency of intra-framework awards is not shared by the European Commission (unless that Institution is looking to impose stricter standards to Member States' procurement than to its own and that of the rest of European Institutions). It could also be that DG BUDGET has a more process-oriented (buyer) approach to procurement regulation than DG GROWTH, which would explain the difference in willingness to (self)impose transparency obligations. However, be it as it may, I still think that this is not a desirable regulatory option and I would like to see the proposal for a new Financial Regulation amended on this point.

I would not favour full transparency of intra-framework award decisions. However, I accept that contractors included in a framework agreement (and third parties) should be given information regarding the evolution of the intra-framework, at least of a 'historical' and overall nature, so that they can have a rough idea of how the implementation of the contract is being carried out. 

Moreover, there is no clear reason why frameworks would require being less transparent than dynamic purchasing systems (which are, in the end, open frameworks), particularly because the contracting authority is in a good position to identify any instances of intra-framework collusion in which the contractors could engage on the basis of the periodical reports they may get. 

Consequently, I would favour the creation of a system of delayed and grouped (quarterly) reporting of the intra-framework award/call-off decisions, along the lines of what Art 50(3) Dir 2014/24 and reg.50(5) PCR2015 establish for dynamic purchasing systems.

Modification of contracts during their term under Reg. 72 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

Reg. 72 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 (PCR2015) transposes the rules on modification of contracts during their term newly established by Article 72 of Directive 2014/24. I have some comments on the new regime from a competition perspective (below) and an observation concerning the wording of reg.72 PCR2015 from a transposition perspective. Pedro's shorter and possibly sharper remarks are here.

The transposition alters the structure of the provision and groups some limitations [reg.72(2) PCR2015] in a way that eliminates repetition and slightly simplifies it. Reg.72 does not transpose the possibility under Art 72(1)(d)(iii) Dir 2014/24 for contracting authorities to assume themselves the main contractor’s obligations towards its subcontractors, since this was not included in reg.71 PCR2015. This does not represent any infringement of the transposition obligations.

Differently, the only point where re.72 PCR2015 diverges from Art 72 Dir 2014/24 in a (seemingly) material way concerns the possibility to modify contracts under reg.72(1)(b) PCR2015 due to technical or economic issues, particularly concerning interchangeability and interoperability requirements. Art 72(1)(b) Dir 2014/24 allows for such modifications up to 50 % of the value of the original contract (per modification) where the following two cumulative conditions are met: "a change of contractor (i) cannot be made for economic or technical reasons such as requirements of interchangeability or interoperability with existing equipment, services or installations procured under the initial procurement; and (ii) would cause significant inconvenience or substantial duplication of costs for the contracting authority". Conversely, reg.72(1)(b) presents both conditions as alternative "a change of contractor (i) cannot be made for economic or technical reasons such as requirements of interchangeability or interoperability with existing equipment, services or installations procured under the initial procurement, or (ii) would cause significant inconvenience or substantial duplication of costs for the contracting authority".

This is an issue that Dr Totis Kotsonis discussed in Global Revolution VII last Tuesday (and went beyond this general overview). In my own view, the divergence is material because the second condition seems to impose a "threshold of significant inconvenience/duplication of cost" that gets lost if both conditions are not met simultaneously. In my view, this may potentially lead to an infringement of EU law and, consequently, contracting authorities will be well advised to make sure that they comply with both requirements in case they modify contracts under this heading.

More generally, from a competition perspective, my views are as follows [Public Procurement and the EU Competition Rules, 2nd edn (Oxford, Hart, 2015) 426-429]. I have further thoughts on the extension of contracts (ie the modifications covered by reg.72(1)(c) and 72(5) PCR2015, but I save them for some other time.

Renegotiation of the Main Conditions of the Contract and its Modification 
Renegotiation of the contract during its implementation is another circumstance partially covered previously in the analysis of the closely related issue of negotiations immediately before or shortly after contract award. As a preliminary issue, it is necessary to distinguish between modifications of certain elements of the contract according to the rules included in the call for tenders and contractual conditions—such as, for instance, price adjustments according to the evolution of a given index over time, or the revision of deadlines for the execution of certain parts of the contract that depend on future events—and proper renegotiations of the terms of the contract in other cases.[1] 

While the former, which we could label ‘contractual adjustments’ or ‘contractual revisions’, are not strictly affected by the ban on negotiations (as they result from the direct implementation of contractual clauses and tender conditions set and disclosed from the beginning—which, logically, are not re-negotiated at this stage), the amendment of basic or substantial elements of the contract during its implementation raises significant concerns. In this regard, it is worth remembering that negotiation and amendments to the call for tenders and the tenders themselves are generally restricted, especially before the award of the contract. By the same token, renegotiation at later stages of contract implementation has to be approached from a restrictive perspective,[2] since it could be used to provide favourable treatment to the awardee and, in the end, generate significant distortions of competition.[3]

In this regard, it should be stressed that there can be a larger need for limited renegotiation as the implementation of the contract progresses (as compared to the same renegotiation right before or shortly after the award of the contract), as contractors and contracting authorities might be faced with unexpected situations that require an adjustment of the contract.[4] However, those renegotiations should normally refer to relatively secondary issues related to the subject-matter of the contract, and so the adjustment should not require a material amendment of the basic or fundamental elements of the contract (such as liability clauses, rules regarding transfer of risk, insurance or guarantee schemes, etc)—perhaps with the only exception of the scope, delay and price for the works, goods and services, provided they do not alter the essence of the contract, which should be analysed separately as instances of extension or award of additional works.

Therefore, in order to prevent potential discrimination and distortions of competition, the same rules applicable to (re)negotiations at earlier stages of the process should apply, so that changes in the basic, substantial or fundamental elements of the contract are prevented. In case the contracting authorities’ needs can no longer be satisfied without introducing such material amendments to the contractual relationship, it is submitted that the only option will then be to proceed to the termination of the current contract and the re-tendering of its subject-matter under new conditions adjusted to the present circumstances (subject to certain limits). This position has now been endorsed by recital (107) of Directive 2014/24, which clearly indicates that

It is necessary to clarify the conditions under which modifications to a contract during its performance require a new procurement procedure … A new procurement procedure is required in case of material changes to the initial contract, in particular to the scope and content of the mutual rights and obligations of the parties, including the distribution of intellectual property rights. Such changes demonstrate the parties’ intention to renegotiate essential terms or conditions of that contract. This is the case in particular if the amended conditions would have had an influence on the outcome of the procedure, had they been part of the initial procedure (emphasis added).
Indeed, these issues have now been regulated in Directive 2014/24, which includes a new article 72 on the modification of contracts during their term. Most of the novelties in the Directive 2014/24 are clearly aligned with the proposals outlined above.[5] 

First, article 72(1)(a) of Directive 2014/24 recognises the possibility to carry out modifications that have been provided for in the initial procurement documents in clear, precise and unequivocal review clauses, such as price revision clauses, or options, and irrespective of their monetary value.[6] In order to prevent abuses in the use of this possibility, it requires that such clauses shall state the scope and nature of possible modifications or options as well as the conditions under which they may be used, and that they shall not provide for modifications or options that would alter the overall nature of the contract or the framework agreement.[7] 

Secondly, article 72(4) of Directive 2014/24 prevents modifications of contracts that render them materially different in character from the one initially concluded. Article 72(4) also provides a list of conditions that will trigger a modification being considered substantial,[8] which include the following situations: (a) the change of conditions that restricted competition in earlier phases (ie modifications that introduce conditions which, had they been part of the initial procurement procedure, would have allowed for the admission of other candidates than those initially selected or for the acceptance of a tender other than that originally accepted or would have attracted additional participants in the procurement procedure); (b) changes in the economic balance of the contract or the framework agreement in favour of the contractor in a manner which was not provided for in the initial contract or framework agreement; (c) modifications that considerably extend the scope of the contract or framework agreement; or (d) where a new contractor replaces the one to which the contracting authority had initially awarded the contract, except in cases excluded by article 72(1)(d).[9]

However, none of these situations is absolute and, in particular, Directive 2014/24 exempts some sorts of substantial modifications in view of their need or their limited effects. At this point, it is important to stress that, as mentioned, articles 72(1)(a) and 72(4)(a) of Directive 2014/24 exempt modifications of any value or relevance that are carried out in accordance with previously disclosed revision clauses or options, provided they are clear, precise and unequivocal—which, no doubt, will be the focus of significant litigation in the future.[10] In a similar vein, there is some room for modifications that affect the economic balance of the contract (art 72(4)(c)) and/or extend its scope (art 72(4)(d)) by means of additional work.

Equally, articles 72(1)(d) and and 72(4)(d) of Directive 2014/24 exempt certain unavoidable changes of contractor, which include three cases: (i) changes that derive from the application of an unequivocal review clause or option (which, probably, would not have needed this reiterative regulation); (ii) changes of contractor derived from the universal or partial succession into the position of the initial contractor, following corporate restructuring, including takeover, merger, acquisition or insolvency, provided that the economic operator taking over fulfils the criteria for qualitative selection initially established, and provided that this does not entail other substantial modifications to the contract and is not aimed at circumventing the application of the Directive; or (iii) in the event that the contracting authority itself assumes the main contractor’s obligations towards its subcontractors where this possibility is provided for under national legislation pursuant to Article 71. Of these three possibilities, and from a competition perspective, the only one that deserves careful consideration is the second one, given that it is the only one that changes the competitive dynamics in the market. In that regard, the application of the last anti-circumvention clause may be particularly relevant in controlling cases of fraudulent corporate restructurings.

Finally, article 72(5) of Directive 2014/24 is very clear in establishing that a new procurement procedure in accordance with its rules (ie, the termination of the existing contract and the consequent re-tendering of the substantially modified contract) will be necessary in all situations where the modification of the contract is substantial and does not derive either from clear, precise and unequivocal revision clauses, or from changes justified on grounds of necessity.

Globally, then, the new rules on the modification of contracts during their term fundamentally keep a pro-competitive orientation and set an appropriate framework that, if properly applied, should minimise competition distortions. However, the rules are not fully-compliant with the needs of a pro-competitive procurement system when it comes to the issue of contractual extensions and the award of additional works, which have received a particularly lenient treatment in Directive 2014/24, as discussed in the following sub-section.






[1] For further details on modifications of certain (even basic) elements of the contract according to predefined rules clearly included in the call for tenders, see Case C-496/99 P Succhi di Frutta [2004] ECR I-3801 118; where the ECJ determined that, for the contracting authority to be able to amend some conditions of the invitation to tender after the successful tenderer has been selected, this possibility has to be expressly regulated in the tender documentation in a way that determines the framework applicable to this revision and guarantees that all tenderers are on equal footing when formulating their respective tenders.


[2] Arrowsmith et al (n 50) 488–503.


[3] Arrowsmith (n 293) 127 and 145.


[4] For discussion, see ME Comba, ‘Contract Execution in Europe: Different Legal Models with a Common Core’ (2013) European Procurement & Public Private Partnership Law Review 302.


[5] Which were already included in the first edition of this book, see Sanchez Graells (n 176) 345–46.


[6] See recital (111) dir 2014/24.


[7] See ST Poulsen, ‘The possibilities of amending a public contract without a new competitive tendering procedure under EU law’ (2012) 21 Public Procurement Law Review 167–87; K Hartlev and M Wahl Liljenbøl, ‘Changes to Existing Contracts under the EU Public Procurement Rules and the Drafting of Review Clauses to Avoid the Need for a New Tender’ (2013) 22 Public Procurement Law Review 51–73; and K Smith, ‘Contract adjustments and public procurement: an analysis of the law and its application’ (PPRG PhD Conference Paper, 2014), available at nottingham.ac.uk/pprg/documentsarchive/phdconference2014/smith.pdf.


[8] It has been stressed that the key criteria for the assessment of whether a change should be considered as substantial are in accordance with the ruling in Case C-454/06 Pressetext Nachrichtenagentur [2008] ECR I-4401. See Treumer ‘Contract changes and the duty to retender under the new EU public procurement Directive’ (2014) 149, who also stresses the differences in drafting between article 72(4) dir 2014/24 and Pressetext.


[9] See recital (110), which provides clarification regarding cases of justified and unjustified substitution of the contractor with or without a new procurement procedure.

[10] Similarly, Hartlev and Wahl Liljenbøl, ‘Drafting of Review Clauses to Avoid the Need for a New Tender’ (2013).

Subcontracting under Reg. 71 Public Contracts Regulations 2015

After some refreshing and thought-provoking discussions at the Global Revolution VII conference in Nottingham earlier this week [yes, we inadvertently showed up in the exact same attire... but presented different topics: Pedro's paper is here and mine is here], we now restart our procurement tennis. We have 52 regulations to go, so this will be an interesting summer and we hope that you will continue joining us in the debate. 

Pedro's serve on reg.71 is available here. He rightly questions whether contracting authorities have the right incentives to actually engage in significant supply chian monitoring beyond limited obligations for works and services carried out in their premises. I agree. I also think that contracting authorities should not extensively use subcontracting powers to either mandate or prevent subcontracting (see below).

Reg.71 of the Public Contracts Regulations 2015 transposes Art 71 of Directive 2014/24 concerning rules applicable to subcontracting. This is an area where the Commission introduced novelties to foster SMEs' (indirect) participation in procurement through streamlined subcontracting opportunities, as well as some rules strengthening the supply/value added chain monitoring possibilities for contracting authorities [see rec (105) dir 2014/24]. 

In that regard,  and without prejudice to the main contractor's liability vis-a-vis the contracting authority [reg.71(2) PCR2015; that is, without establishing a direct contractual relationship between the subcontractor(s) and the contracting authority], the latter may ask tenderers to indicate any share of the contract that they may intend to subcontract to third parties and any proposed subcontractors [reg.71(1)], and it shall do so where works and/or services are to be provided at a facility under the direct oversight of the contracting authority [reg.71(3) PCR2015]. Any changes in the subcontracting structure for the contract need to be notified to the contracting authority promptly [reg.71(4) PCR2015]. Contracting authorities can extend this obligation to certain contracts not carried out in facilities under the direct oversight of the contracting authority, as well to suppliers involved in works or services contracts, and they can go down the chain beyond the first subcontracting tier [reg.71(7) PCR2015].

This immediately places the contracting authority in a situation where it can monitor and influence the subcontracting activity related to a given contract. However, the transposition of Art 71 Dir 2014/24 in reg.71 PCR2015 has not maximised the subcontracting management possibilities foreseen in the EU rule.

Reg.71 PCR2015 does not include some of the optional mechanisms in Art 71 Dir 2014/24, such as the possibility to create mechanisms of direct payment to subcontractors as per Art 71(3) and (7) Dir 2014/24. However, there are specific rules in reg.113 of Part 4 PCR2015 requiring that 30 day payment terms are flowed down the public sector supply chain, which may mitigate the effects of such transposition option (as we will discuss in due course).

The new rules in reg.71 PCR2015 also try to mitigate the burden of controlling the supply chain that contracting authorities may otherwise face. It is interesting to note that Art 71(1) Dir 2014/24 stresses that "Observance of the obligations referred to in Article 18(2) by subcontractors is ensured through appropriate action by the competent national authorities acting within the scope of their responsibility and remit." Consequently, the duty for contracting authorities to monitor and ensure compliance with environmental, social and labour law by subcontractors is limited to the general principle of reg.56(2) PCR2015, which refers to the tender itself and seems to restrict the scope of monitoring obligations in a significant way. 

This is without prejudice of their discretion to check that subcontractors are not affected by exclusion grounds under reg.57 PCR2015 [see reg.71(8) PCR2015] and seems to fall short from the possibilities foreseen in Art 71 Dir 2014/24 (and, particularly, the lack of transposition of rules imposing joint liability between subcontractors and the main contractor for compliance with environmental, social and labour law (which is, however, not excluded and thus subjected to general contract and tort law principles).

In relation to the enforcement of exclusion grounds on subcontractors, reg. 71(9) PCR2015 determines that the contracting authority shall require that the economic operator replaces a subcontractor in respect of which the verification has shown that there are compulsory grounds for exclusion; and may require the economic operator to do so where there are non-compulsory grounds for exclusion.

Subcontracting and competition 
Beyond these supply/value added chain management issues, subcontracting can trigger competition-related concerns that, in my view, also deserve some thought. In that regard, this is what I have submitted in my Public Procurement and the EU Competition Rules, 2nd edn (Oxford, Hart, 215) 353-355.

EU public procurement directives establish rules on subcontracting with the specific ‘secondary’ policy objective of encouraging the involvement of small and medium-sized undertakings in the public contracts procurement market (eg, recital (78) dir 2014/24). In this regard, article 71(2) of Directive 2014/24 establishes that contracting authorities may ask tenderers to indicate any share of the contract they may intend to subcontract to third parties and any proposed subcontractors—with the aim of providing transparency in the subcontracting chain (rec (105) dir 2014/24). It also makes it clear that subcontracting does not alter the principal economic operator’s liability (art 71(4) dir 2014/24) and, in any case, leaving Member States’ discretion to opt for more stringent liability rules under national law (art 71(7) dir 2014/24). 

The rest of article 71 introduces new rules on the control of subcontractors and their compliance with exclusion and qualitative selection criteria and, particularly, compliance with the environmental and social rules indicated in article 18(2) of Directive 2014/24 (art 71(6) dir 2014/24), as well as new rules on the required checks when subcontractors are to perform contractual obligations at a facility under the direct oversight of the contracting authority (art 71(5) dir 2014/24). It also introduces new rules concerning the direct payment to subcontractors by the contracting authority. Firstly, it facilitates the establishment of mechanisms of direct payment to subcontractors upon their request (art 71(3) dir 2014/24) and, secondly, it allows Member States to go further, for instance, by providing for direct payments to subcontractors without it being necessary for them to request such direct payment (art 71(7) dir 2014/24).  Therefore, the directive does not impose, but seems to favour, buying strategies aimed at inducing or mandating the subcontracting of significant parts of the tendered contracts.[1]

In this regard, it should be stressed that, although there is no express indication in the directive to that effect, the percentage of work to be subcontracted by tenderers could in principle be used as an award criterion in determining the most economically advantageous tender (ex art 67(2) dir 2014/24)—although doubts can be harboured as to the relevance of this criterion, particularly for its questionable link to the subject-matter of the contract (which should not be affected by direct execution or subcontracting of the works, as long as the undertaking entrusted with the activity meets the relevant suitability criteria), and for the difficulties in envisaging the economic advantage that can derive from different levels of subcontracting (for further details as regards the requirements applicable to award criteria).
Finally, it is also worth underlining that, according to the interpreting case law of the EU judicature—and largely in the opposite direction of the approach followed by Directive 2014/24 in article 71, but in line with what is established in article 63(2)[2]—contracting authorities can prohibit or restrict

the use of subcontracting for the performance of essential parts of the contract [more] precisely in the case where the contracting authority has not been in a position to verify the technical and economic capacities of the subcontractors when examining the tenders and selecting the lowest tenderer.[3]

Indeed, unchecked subcontracting could be used to circumvent the controls set up by the public procurement system, particularly as regards the evaluation of the professional, economic and technical standing of tenderers. Therefore, restrictions on subcontracting can be justified under certain circumstances.

In general, then, according to the rules of the EU public procurement directives and the relevant case law, contracting authorities enjoy substantial discretion to induce, mandate or prohibit (depending on the circumstances) the subcontracting of significant parts of the tendered contracts. However, as economic theory has shown and as experts have rightly warned, ‘measures to facilitate sub-contracting (or an explicit requirement to subcontract) may have undesirable competition effects because they could reduce participation and facilitate collusion’.[4] Consequently, it seems appropriate to undertake an assessment of these rules in the light of the principle of competition.

From an economic perspective, it is important to stress that it has been shown that subcontracting does not usually reallocate work in an efficient manner and provides the main contractor with the ability to extract rents from its subcontractors.[5] Consequently, contrary to the common wisdom encapsulated in recital (78) of Directive 2014/24 (and previously in recital (32) of Directive 2004/18),[6] induced or mandatory subcontracting is an inadequate instrument to ‘spread’ work or foster efficient SME participation in public procurement—or, at least, is inferior to alternative measures such as lot division.[7] Moreover, subcontracting amongst competitors can be an effective way to enforce collusive agreements,[8] or to impose restrictions of competition that could go beyond the indispensible limits to ensure the proper deployment of the subcontract.[9] Therefore, in general terms, there seems to be no good reason for contracting authorities to induce or mandate tenderers to subcontract any significant amount of the works, services or supplies involved in the tendered contract—particularly taking into account that the alternative (and less restrictive) mechanism of lot division is available to them in order to increase competition and foster participation, specially by SMEs.

In the light of the potential distortions of competition that can arise from subcontracting requirements, and as yet another instance of application of the competition principle embedded in the EU public procurement directives, it is submitted that contracting authorities should refrain from mandating or inducing subcontracting (in particular, by using the percentage of subcontracted work as an award criterion) if this could result in restrictions or distortions of competition—which is a highly probable situation. It could be argued that, in such scenario, a general prohibition of subcontracting could be preferable as the default rule—which could be waived where the subject matter of the contract or the industry structure so requires. However, this more restrictive rule would require the contracting authority to second-guess the subcontracting decisions of the market. Therefore, it is submitted that an obligation to abstain from requiring or mandating subcontracting is preferable to banning it altogether.


[1] See: S Arrowsmith, The Law of Public and Utilities Procurement. Regulation in the EU and the UK, Vol. 1, 3rd edn (London, Sweet & Maxwell,2014) 1325–28.
[2] Indeed, it should be taken into consideration that in the case of works contracts, service contracts and siting or installation operations in the context of a supply contract, contracting authorities may require that certain critical tasks be performed directly by the tenderer itself or by a participant in a group of economic operators as referred to in article 19(2) of Directive 2014/24, which seems to run contrary to the facilitation or mandate of subcontracting, at least under specific circumstances.
[3] Case C-314/01 ARGE [2004] ECR I-2549 45; and Opinion of AG Kokott in case C-454/06 Pressetext Nachrichtenagentur 56.
[4] OFT (n 13) 19 and 125–27. Along the same lines, OECD, Public Procurement: Role of Competition Authorities (2007) 9.
[5] Adams and Gray, Monopoly in America (1955) 104. For some empirical support in the same direction, see L Moretti and P Valbonesi, Subcontracting in Public Procurement: an empirical investigation (Department of Economics and Management, University of Padova, Working Paper No. 158, 2012) available at works.bepress.com/paola_valbonesi/24.
[6] See: Bovis (n 55) 68 and 116–17. In similar terms, Carpineti et al (n 214) 33.
[7] Grimm et al (n 386) 174 and 180; also V Grimm, ‘Sequential versus Bundle Auctions for Recurring Procurement’ (2007) 90 Journal of Economics 1, 2 and 18.
[8] See: OFT (n 13) 19 and 125–27; Carpineti et al (n 214) 34; and MJ Shockro, ‘An Antitrust Analysis of the Relationship between Primer Contractors and Their Subcontractors under a Government Contract’ (1982) 51 Antitrust Law Journal 725.
[9] See:  Trepte (n 23) 52–54.

Another interesting paper on corruption and (induced) collusion in public procurement (Gong & Zhou, 2015)

Still on the topic of interaction between corruption and collusion, or how corrupt officials can create or consolidate collusion in procurement markets, I have come across another interesting recent paper: T Gong & N Zhou, "Corruption and marketization: Formal and informal rules in Chinese public procurement" (2014) 9(1) Regulation & Governance 63-76. 

This time, the research focuses on the Chinese experience and shows shockingly (not) similar trends to the Russian case study mentioned yesterday. The paper forcefully argues that 'empirical findings from China indicate that the relationship between market liberalization and corruption is more complex and nuanced than conventional wisdom suggests'. 

Some of the most interesting insights refer to the collusion (in broad terms) of bidders and public officials to avoid the application of formal public procurement rules (72-73) which, once again, will sound very familiar to scholars and practitioners with experience in any jurisdiction.
 

Interesting paper on corruption and (induced) collusion in public procurement (Ostrovnaya & Podkolzina, 2015)

In their recent paper "Antitrust Enforcement in Public Procurement: the Case of Russia" (2015) 11(2) Journal of Competition Law & Economics 331-352, M Ostrovnaya and E Podkolzina of the International Laboratory for Institutional Analysis of Economic Reforms discuss an example of interaction between corruption and (apparent) collusion in public procurement for drugs in Russia. 

I found the paper an interesting read and some of their insights on how corrupt officials can create or consolidate collusion in procurement markets will certainly ring many bells. This was an issue we recently discussed extensively at a knowledge exchange event at the Law School of the University of Sussex, and one that seems to be triggering increased attention in academic and practitioner circles.

Ostrovnaya and Podkolzina's analysis clearly shows that antitrust intervention against the public sector's restrictive procurement practices was resisted by a specific public buyer, which most likely decided to resort to an orchestrated system of bid covers (or passive bidding, as they label it) to avoid further antitrust intervention--thus deviating the attention of the antitrust watchdog towards the behaviour of the (certainly non-innocent) bidders. 

Their case study will be a useful guideline for the development of more effective competition rules applicable to the public sector. Or, at least, a warning against naive assumptions that antitrust intervention can ipso facto exclude issues of (induced) collusion in procurement markets.

CJEU implicitly rejects GC's views on subjective assessment of two-part State aid measures under Art 107(1) TFEU (C-15/14)

In its Judgment in Commission v MOL, C-15/14, EU:C:2015:362, the CJEU upheld the previous Judgment of the GC where the selectivity of two-part State aid measures was assessed with very generous deference towards the State's exercise of regulatory powers (which I criticised here). 
 
The CJEU assessed the criticism by the Commission of the GC's position (T-499/10, paras 64 and 65) that the presence of a selective advantage cannot be deduced from the mere fact that the operator is left better off than other operators when the Member State concerned justifiably confined itself to exercising its regulatory power following a change on the market. 
 
Remarkably, the Commission took issue with the fact that the General Court linked "the assessment of the selective nature of the ... agreement, and therefore the measure at issue, to whether or not the Member State concerned had the intention, at the time of concluding that agreement, of protecting one or more operators from the application of a new fee regime" (C-15/14, para 85, emphasis added). As the CJEU stresses
According to the Commission, the General Court thus disregarded the settled case-law of the Court of Justice to the effect that Article 107(1) TFEU defines State interventions on the basis of their effects, and independently of the techniques used by the Member States to implement their interventions (see, inter alia, judgments in Belgium v Commission, C‑56/93, EU:C:1996:64, paragraph 79; Belgium v Commission, C‑75/97, EU:C:1999:311, paragraph 25; British Aggregates v Commission, C‑487/06 P, EU:C:2008:757, paragraph 89; and Commission v Government of Gibraltar and United Kingdom, C‑106/09 P and C‑107/09 P, EU:C:2011:732, paragraphs 91, 92 and 98) (C-15/14, para 86).
I had also criticised the GC for the inclusion of the element of "intention" in its previous Judgment. However, I also expressed doubts as to the CJEU's willingness to side by the GC. In my view back then,
If Article 107(1) TFEU is meant to avoid distortions of competition in the internal market, when confronted with sequential, two-part or complex aid measures, the fact that they all formed part of a 'master plan' from the outset or are the 'random or supervening' result of discrete interventions should be irrelevant. Otherwise, the burden of proving 'distortive intent' from the outset may simply make it impossible to pursue these cases. However, it may well be that the remarks made by the GC in para 67 of MOL v Commission will remain a 'mere' obiter dictum and that the assessment of two-part or complex measures will remain much more objective in the future.
Consequently, I was hoping that the CJEU would quash this part of the Judgment in T-499/10. However, the CJEU rejected the argument of the Commission and determined that the GC's argumentation in paras 64 to 67 and 82 of the Judgment in T-499/10 was not vitiated by any error of law. I disagree with the CJEU's arguments to support the GC's position, which deserve close scrutiny (below). However, given that the CJEU has managed to uphold the GC's reasoning and at the same time stress that two-part or complex State aid measures must be assessed without any reference to the "intention" of the Member State, I agree with the outcome of the case.
 
According to the CJEU,
92 ... the General Court stated, in paragraph 67 of the judgment under appeal, that [under] the case-law of the Court of Justice, ... for the purposes of Article 107(1) TFEU, a single aid measure may consist of combined elements on condition that, having regard to their chronology, their purpose and the circumstances of the undertaking at the time of their intervention, they are so closely linked to each other that they are inseparable from one another (judgment in Bouygues and Bouygues Télécom v Commission and Others and Commission v France and Others, C‑399/10 P and C‑401/10 P, EU:C:2013:175, paragraphs 103 and 104 and the case-law cited).
93 In that context, the General Court emphasised, in paragraph 67 of the judgment under appeal, that a combination of elements such as that relied upon by the Commission in the decision at issue may be categorised as State aid when the State acts in such a way as to protect one or more operators already present on the market, by concluding with them an agreement granting them fee rates guaranteed for the entire duration of that agreement, while having the intention at that time of subsequently exercising its regulatory power, by increasing the fee rate so that other market operators are placed at a disadvantage, be they operators already present on the market on the date on which that agreement was concluded or new operators.
94 It was in the light of those considerations that the General Court, in paragraph 68 of the judgment under appeal, decided that it was necessary to examine whether, in those proceedings, the Commission was entitled to consider that the contested measure was selective.
95 It follows from the foregoing that, as MOL contends, paragraphs 64 to 67 of the judgment under appeal do not, as such, concern the examination of the selectivity of the 2005 agreement, but are preliminary explanations aimed at introducing the relevant framework in relation to which the General Court examined whether the Commission was correct in finding that the measure at issue was selective (sic).
96 As the Advocate General stated in points 107 and 114 of his Opinion, by those preliminary explanations, the General Court in fact sought to deal with the issue of the links existing between the 2005 agreement and the 2008 amendment, which the Commission had not specifically addressed in the decision at issue, and more particularly, to underline the fact that, given that there is no chronological and/or functional link between those two elements, they cannot be interpreted as constituting a single aid measure.
97 By those preliminary explanations, the General Court merely applied the case-law laid down by the Court of Justice in the judgment in Bouygues and Bouygues Télécom v Commission and Others and Commission v France and Others (C‑399/10 P and C‑401/10 P, EU:C:2013:175), to which the General Court also expressly referred in paragraph 67 of the judgment under appeal, and according to which, since State interventions take various forms and have to be assessed in relation to their effects, it cannot be excluded that several consecutive measures of State intervention must, for the purposes of Article 107(1) TFEU, be regarded as a single intervention. That could be the case, in particular when consecutive interventions, having regard to their chronology, their purpose and the circumstances of the undertaking at the time of those interventions, are so closely related to each other that they are inseparable from one another (C-15/14, paras 92 to 97, emphasis added).
I find the reasoning of the CJEU very poor. By artificially breaking up paragraph 67 of the GC's Judgment in paras 92 and 93 of its own Judgment, the CJEU attempts to limit the requirement of the element of "intention" to some mysterious "preliminary explanations" excluded from the selectivity assessment, and this is very unsatisfactory and unconvincing.

In my view, the CJEU should have plain and simply said that the GC would have been wrong to include an element of "intention" in the test applicable to two-part or complex State aid measures, which assessment needs to be carried out in view of objective factors such as 'their chronology, their purpose and the circumstances of the undertaking at the time of their intervention, [or whether] they are so closely linked to each other that they are inseparable from one another' as per Bouygues and Bouygues Télécom v Commission and Others and Commission v France and Others.

Allowing the GC to save face by limiting its erroneous interpretation of that case law in para 67 of T-499/10, or failing to stress the fact that it was an unfortunate expression made obiter dictum (if they wanted to remain deferential) pays lip service to legal certainty. In my view, the CJEU could have decided otherwise because the element of "intention" is actually not assessed at any point of the GC's Judgment and the CJEU was ready to accept the selectivity analysis carried out by the GC. Consequently, there was no need for the strange and convoluted analysis in paras 92 to 97 of the Judgment in C-15/14. 

Be it as it may, the silver lining is in the fact that the CJEU has clearly rejected that the test it progressively laid down for the analysis of two-part or complex State aid measures encompasses any subjective element of "intention" on the part of the granting Member State. Consequently, the analysis of the selectivity of measures closely connected will continue to have to be carried out on the basis of purely objective factors, such as 'their chronology, their purpose and the circumstances of the undertaking at the time of their intervention, [or whether] they are so closely linked to each other that they are inseparable from one another. All is well that ends well.